Generally there are four groups of programming languages, namely:
Object Oriented Language (Visual dBase, Visual FoxPro, Dephi, Visual C)
.high level (like Pascal and Basic)
.middle level (such as C language)
.low level (like Assembly Language)
A. DelphiBorland Delphi or Delphi are commonly called, is a visual application programming tool. The programming language used was Pascal programming language, or who later called the Delphi programming language. Delphi is the next generation of Turbo Pascal. Turbo Pascal, which was launched in 1983 designed to run on DOS operating system (which is the operating system most widely used at the time). While Delphi was first launched in 1995 designed to operate under the Windows operating system. Borland Delphi is a programming language since it first launched a direct glance and in demand by a computer programmer. This is because Delphi disebabakan provide facilities for the creation of applications with a simple visual interface and can provide satisfactory results. Many applications can be developed with Delphi as the operation of mathematical calculations, graphics, word processing, Spreet Sheet, games and databases. At Delphi there are two kinds of structures that projrek structure and the structure of Delphi program unit. Project structure in a project that you build, there is a main program file that contains the code for the program management unit - unit. The main program code is usually called project code and stored in files ending in. House. Unit A unit structures containing types, constants, variables and routines (functions of the procedure). Each unit is defined dalaqm file. PAS that deal with the unit Pros:
Its freeware.
Developed with the Pascal language, so for users who are familiar with basic turbo Pascal programming will be more familiar
Components provided complete enough without having to add components from other sources.
The documentation is quite complete.
Weaknesses:Users who do not have the basic Pascal programming language will have trouble for the first time.
Each component is included in the display form, the code will be included in the list declarations and initialization code. So if there is a change of components, naming and writing the error code, the program will not automatically corrected.
If there is a form / other code in the list-include-right, have written code / name of the form / lost code in the "uses" and also initialization variablenya.
2. C languageRoot of the C language is the language BCPL, developed by Richard Martin in 1967. This language gives the idea to Ken Thompson who later developed a language called B in 1970. Subsequent development of language B is a C language by Dennis Ricthie circa 1972's at Bell Telephone Laboratories Inc. (Now AT & T Bell Laboratories).Excess C Language:
Some of the reasons why the C language is widely used, include the following:
C language is available in almost all types of computerIts C language code is portable applications written in C language for a particular computer can be used on another computer with just a slight modification.The C language provides only a few key wordsC language program executable process fasterSupport libraries that many C language Reliability is achieved by the library functions.C is a language in a structured language C has a good structure so it is easy to understand. C has functions as part of the program.In addition to high-level language, C is also considered a mid-level language. C language is able to combine high-level language proficiency level with low-level language level.Because the C language is a C compiler is its compiler, it will generate an executable program that is required by many commercial programs.In addition to these reasons there are several other reasons why using C language, namely:
C is a programming language that has a high portability. We write C programs for one type of platform, we can compile and run on other platforms with no or only minor changes. This can be realized with the ANSI standards for C. C is a programming language with the keyword (keyword) bit. Key word here is a basic word or function provided by the compiler of a programming language. This brings the influence of the more easily we write a program with low-level language. Another effect of this keyword is at least the execution of C program very quickly.The lack of the usual C language include:
The number of operators as well as the flexibility of writing programs sometimes confuse users.
For beginners in general have trouble using the pointer.
3. Visual BasicMicrosoft Visual Basic (often abbreviated as VB only) is a programming language that offers Integrated Development Environment (IDE) to create visual-based software program Microsoft Windows operating system using a programming model (COM), Visual Basic is a derivative of the BASIC programming language and offers software development komputergrafik quickly, some scripting language such as Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) and Visual Basic Scripting Edition (VBScript), Visual Basic is similar as well, but it works differently. The programmer can build applications by using components provided by Microsoft Visual Basic programs written in Visual Basic can also use the Windows API, but requires additional external function declarations. Visual Basic 6 is a tool for application development is much in demand by people. Visual Basic 6 here offers the ease of manufacture and application can use components that have been provided. To start the Visual Basic 6, you need to install Visual Basic 6.0. The program is usually in a package with Visual Studio 6.0. By using Visual Basic 6 we can produce various types of programs. Of applications that integrate databases, networking, office automation, and web application.
Visual basic advantages:
Simple language. Many things may be difficult if we use other programming languages, it can be done easily by using Visual Basic.Because Visual Basic is so popular, it is a lot of resources that we can use to learn and develop the skills you're either in the form of books, web site etc.We can get a lot of tools are either free or not on the Internet that will help us save time in the programmingDisadvantages of Visual Basic:
Visual Basic is a powerful programming language, but actually not very good for making games that really satisfySlower than other programming languages.
4. PascalDesigned by prof. Nicklaus Wirth from the Technical University in Zurich, Switzerlandtahun 1971.Nama derived from Pascal Blaise Pascal, the mathematician's name and philosophy from the French (17th century). Development of the language Algol 60 and Algol W (derived Algol 60). Has several versions, such as Turbo Pascal, Ms. Pascal (Microsoft), Apple Pascal, UCSD (University of California at San Diego Pascal), etc.. Turbo Pascal made by Borland Inc. is the most widely used version because it uses a compiler to translate it and also follow the standard Pascal language created by Nicklaus Wirth and K. Jensen. Pascal is a high-level programming language (high level language) and structured (Structured Programming language).Pros:
Standard data types, standard data types that are available in most programming languages. Pascal has a standard data types: boolean, integer, real, char, string,User defined Data Types, programmers can create other data types derived from standard data types.Strongly-typed, the programmer must specify the data type of a variable, and variables can not be used to store data types other than the specified format.Structured, has a syntax that allows the writing program is broken down into smaller functions (procedures and functions) that can be used repeatedly.Simple and expressive, has a simple structure and very close to human language (English) so easy to learn and understand.Disadvantages:
Not flexible usage.PASCAL language is also the language used as the standard programming language for the Indonesia national team Olympic Computer (TOKI). In addition, the PASCAL language is still used in the IOI (International Olympiad in Informatics).
5. JAVAJava is a technology introduced by Sun Microsystems in the mid 1990s. By definition of the Sun, Java is the name for a set of technologies to create and run the luinak on a standalone computer or in a networked environment. We prefer to refer to Java as a technology rather than just a programming language, because Java is more complete than a conventional programming language. Java technology has three essential components, namely:
Programming-language specification
Application-programming interface
Virtual-machine specification
Java language can be categorized as an object-oriented programming languages, distributed programming and programming languages multithrreaded. Java object specified by the form class. For each class of Java, the Java compiler to produce an output file to be architecture-neutral way in the various implementations of the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). Java was initially very popular with internet programming community, because the support for Java applets, where the program with limited resources access to the road in a web browser. Java also provides high level support for networking and distributed objects. Java is also regarded as a safe language. This view is particularly important to think that a Java program can execute cross a distributed network. So that the current Java language includes a programming language that is relatively easy to learn because of the many examples and concepts that are widely circulated, either in the form of books or the Internet. But the program made in Java language also requires relatively more time in execution time (longer) because it takes the JVM to run the program (an intermediary between programs and operating systems).
6. C + + Programming LanguageC + + is a computer programming language C + + was developed at Bell Labs (Bjarne Stroustrup) in the early 1970s, the language is derived from the previous language, the BCL, At first, the language is designed as a programming language that runs on Unix systems, the development, version ANSI (American National Standards Institute) C programming language is a version of the dominant, though the version is now rarely used in the development of systems and networks as well as for embedded systems, Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs first developed C + + in the early 1980s, to support features in C + +, built efficiency and system support for low-level programming (low-level coding).] In C + + added new concepts like class with its properties such as inheritance and overloading. One of the most fundamental differences with the C language is support for the concept of object-oriented programming (Object Oriented Programming). Differences between programming languages C and C + + though these languages use the same syntax, but they have differences, C is a procedural programming languages, where the resolution of a problem is done by dividing the problem into the su-subproblems of smaller, In addition, C + + is a programming language that has the properties of Object-oriented programming, to solve the problem, C + + do the first step to explain the classes that a child class previously created as an abstraction from objects of physical, Class contains the state of the object, its members and the ability of objectnya, After Class is created and then solved the problem with the Class.
7. PHP Programming LanguagePHP is a scripting language most widely used today. PHP was first created by Rasmus Lerdorf in 1995. At that time, PHP was named FI (Form Interpreted), which is his form of a set of scripts that are used to process data from a web form. PHP is widely used to create dynamic web sites, although it was likely used for other usage. PHP generally runs on the Linux operating system (PHP can also be run with Windows hosting).
8. Programming language pytonPython is a dynamic programming language that supports object-oriented programming. Python can be used for various purposes and the development of software can run on various operating system platforms. Like the dynamic programming language, Python is often used as a scripting language with an interpreter teintergrasi in the operating system. Currently python code can be run on a system-based:
Linux / UnixWindows
Mac OS X
Java Virtual Machine
OS / 2
AmigaPalmSymbian (Nokia products)
Python is distributed with a license that is different from some versions. See history in the Python Copyright. However, in principle, Python can be obtained and used freely, even for commercial purposes. Python license is not contrary to good according to the definition of Open Source and the General Public License (GPL).
9. Matlab programming languageMATLAB is a numerical computing environment and the fourth generation computer programming language. Developed by The MathWorks, MATLAB allows the manipulation of matrices, the reader's plot functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and self-'s interface with the program in other languages. Although only numerical nuances, a box Kakas (toolbox) that uses the MuPAD symbolic engine, allowing access to computer algebra capabilities. An additional package, Simulink, adds graphical simulation multiranah and Design-Based Model for terlekat and dynamic system.
10.HTMLHyperText Markup Language (HTML) is a markup language used to create a web page and displays various information in an Internet browser. HTML is now an Internet standard defined and controlled use by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). HTML form tag code that instructs the browser to produce a display according to the desired. A file is a HTML file can be opened using a web browser such as Mozilla Firefox or Microsoft Internet Explorer.
Ruby programming 11.BahasaRuby is an object-oriented scripting language. The purpose of ruby is to combine all the advantages of scripting programming languages in the world. Ruby written in C programming language with basic skills such as Perl and Python.Excess ruby:
The syntax is simple.Have a good exception handling.Object Oriented Programming language.Brought the concept of single inheritance.Open source, anyone can use it free of charge and can expand to participate.Has a garbage collector that automatically removes unused information from memory.Cobol programming
12.BahasaCOBOL stands for Common Bussiness Oriented Language. COBOL language is classified as a High Level Language (high-level programming language) is oriented to business problems. Was created in 1959. COBOL was first formally introduced in January 1960 and referred to the COBOL-60. And updated in 1965. In 1968 and 1974, the COBOL language developed and standardized by the name of the ANSI COBOL (American National Institute Standarts). Highly structured COBOL programming language, because it is easy to read and have a clear structure. COBOL is made for data processing operations, the read data, process data and generate output in the form of information.Prolog programming
13.BahasaProlog is a logic programming language or in the call as well as non-procedural language. Its name is taken from programmation en logique French (programming logic). This language was created by Alain Colmerauer and Robert Kowalski about the year 1972 in an effort to create a programming language that allows statements of logic rather than a series of commands to run the computer. In contrast to other programming languages, which use algorithms konvensionl as search techniques such as Delphi, Pascal, BASIC, COBOL programming language and the like, the prologue to use a technique called heuristic search (heutistic) by using a logic tree.
14.Bahasa programming java scriptJavascript programming language is a powerful scripting language that runs on the client side. Javascript is a scripting language developed by Netscape. To run a script written in javascript we need a javascript-enabled browser, the browser that is capable of running javascript JavaScript is not object-oriented languages, but object-based languages. Object-oriented language must support three basic concepts, namely encapsulation (encapsulation), inheritance (inheritance) and polymorphism (poly morphism). JavaScript only supports encapsulation, and even then not 100% correct. JavaScript programs are written in HTML file (. Html or. Htm) using <script> container tag. In other words, you do not need to write JavaScript programs in a separate file (even if you do it too biased). <script> Container tag has two attributes, but you have to fill in only one attribute, namely Language. Fill the Language attribute to "JavaScript".
This tells the browser that you intended to write scripts is JavaScript.
PERL programming 15.BahasaPERL is a programming language similar to the programming language C. And used for all purposes, was first developed by Larry Wall on Unix machines. Perl was first released on December 18, 1987 marked the first release of Perl. In the next versions, Perl is also available for Unix operating systems (SunOS, Linux, BSD, HP-UX), are also available for operating systems like DOS, Windows, PowerPC, BeOS, VMS, EBCDIC, and PocketPC. Support for object-based programming (object oriented programming / OOP) was added to Perl 5, which was first released on July 31, 1993. Perl 6 development project started in 2000, and has continued until now no clear date when it would be released. This was said by Larry Wall himself in a series of speeches known as The State of the Onion. Two of the main characteristics of Perl is the handling of text and a variety of shortcuts to common problems menyelesaiakn. No wonder Perl is very popular used in CGI programs (Common Gateway Interface) and many other Internet protocols. As is known, TCP / IP as the basis for all Internet protocols known today use text format in data communications. As with other popular languages, Perl received much criticism. Although many of these are just a myth, or exaggeration, but there is also a valid criticism. One is, the syntax hard to read, because many uses symbols instead of letters and numbers
Sabtu, 02 Juni 2012
Rabu, 04 Januari 2012
Facts Behind the Game Assassin's Creed
May the Father of Understanding guide us. "moto-Templar.
The Templars, also known as the Knights Templar during the Middle Ages, is the association formed during the prehistoric giants. The Templars are trying to create a perfect world, though in ways that they use to do that also called into question (by force).Because of this, they are the mortal enemy of the Order of the Assassin, who believe that human beings always must have the ability to choose, to have free will, even if it means humanity defects. With the ideological contrast, both groups have been fighting for thousands of years for the control and the fate of humanity.
The order of military Templar was founded in 1129 to face the public a growing threat to the Holy Land by the Saracens, and to protect the city of Jerusalem. Over time, the Templars began to believe it is their power to unite the world in peace.
their belief system is changed upon the discovery of Pieces of Eden, they began to speculate that God is a myth and this led to the Order to be atheistic, even though they openly defend pretend to follow the Christian way so as not to lose the support of the Church.
Realizing that the strength of the Pieces of Eden was held during the human, the Templars began to look for artifacts. In 1191, Robert de Sable, the Grand Master of the Order, a personal search for the Apple myth of Eden, was buried in the catacombs beneath the Temple of Solomon. Theft of pieces of Eden by the Order of Assassins brings two great strengths become ongoing conflict with one another, ending with the death of Armand Bouchart in Limassol. Despite this setback, the Order maintains his belief in creating a peaceful world through manipulation of Pieces of Eden.
With their reason, without penalty or reward hereafter or end after death, there is no reason to require the notion of morality or ethics: the end always justify the means, no matter how heinous the means it. They think that the only life is important, rather than preparing for the next life thinking no. With so many people of low class is stored in accordance with the promise of life after death, and so many upper-class people are happy to ignore these ideals, the Templars vowed to make a better world, one of lasting peace, regardless of cost.
With the passage of time, interest in the Templars find Pieces of Eden into more power and domination of the artifacts being offered. their goals change as they seek to control and unify the entire world using the Pieces of Eden to create a "New World Order".
Prehistoric
The Templars was probably founded by Cain, a 'sign' is used as the top of the Templars'.The Templars quickly became a bitter enemy of the Assassins, who, as opposed to the Templars, fight to allow the people to defend free will.Roman era Roman eraEdit sectionEdit
During the Roman era, the Templars went under the alias "Populusque Senatus Romanus", ruler of the Roman Empire. However, they continue to be thwarted by the rules of the Assassin Order. An important example of this is a plot against Gaius Julius Caesar, who was appointed dictator for life. Forty Assassins, especially Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, had infiltrated the inner circle of Caesar as a senator. They actually planned to kill the Emperor, the plans were successfully implemented on 15 March 44 BC. In addition, on January 24, 41, the Assassin Leonius Caligula was stabbed with a dagger.
During the 1st century, the Templars discovered that one of the Pieces of Eden, a white cloth in the hands of Jesus Christ. Wanting Piece for their own purposes, the Templars had crucified Jesus to get it.
MedievalFormation as a knight Order
During the Middle Ages, Templars remove themselves from under the ground and established himself as a knight of the Order, the Knights Templar.
In 1129 the Council of Troyes, the Order was officially recognized by the church, and in 1139, Pope Innocent II gave them diplomatic immunity in all provinces and territories and exemption from taxes. This allows the fraction to grow in numbers, strength and wealth quickly, and when they become a larger force, their responsibilities increase accordingly: many members of the Order of the leading figures in the second crusade.
Third Crusade
This section deals specifically with the activities of the faction articles Knights Templar during the Third Crusade. If you are looking for information about a specific type of enemy in Assassin's Creed, see the article under the Crusaders.
Founded in Jerusalem in 1129, the Knights Templar of the world to find peace with himself. In 1191, they have come to realize that peace can only be maintained through the use of the Pieces of Eden, and making their quest to collect as much as they can. In the same year, after the theft of Apple's Eden by the killer A-Saif Malik and Altair Ibn-La'Ahad of Templar, Brotherhood held a brief period of sustained conflict with their enemies Assassin. During the year, ten Templar leaders of both the Crusaders and Saracens fell into the background of the bar killer Altair, which serves penance for violating the three principles for theft. Death include not only the Grand Master of the Order, as well *** Al Mualim, a leader in Syria and killer Order Templar not only Apple's willing to share power with nine siblings.
With their leadership effectively abolished by a single killer, Brotherhood retreated to the island of Cyprus under the command of a new Grand Master, Armand Bouchart. Pursued by the Altair, the Templars were abolished once again, even though property in Limassol Templar Archives spirited away before they could be found. Order of Death Armand was forced to consider its position carefully, and with this Order 1312 has been officially disbanded. In fact, the Order continues to evolve, adopting a much more confidential position in world affairs. As the Templars retreated to near anonymity in the eyes of the world, the Order of assassins also retreated into the shadows, as said in the Codex Altair made up.
Renaissance
At the end of the 15th century, the Brotherhood has come back strong position on the world stage, spreading far into the Church and the nobility of Italy. Under the command of Rodrigo Borgia, the Templars sought to unite northern Italy under their command, and return the Apple of Eden which they know to be buried in Cyprus. Targeting Lorenzo de 'Medici, de facto ruler of Florence, the Templars found themselves confronted by Assassin Giovanni Auditore da Firenze, who while not out of loyalty to their Templar, quickly piecing together clues. After two near fatal encounter with Giovanni himself, Borgia arranged for the court and the execution of Giovanni and his three sons - Federico, Petruccio and Ezio - for the crime of High Treason against Florence, which city officials Uberto Alberti damage.The city guards arrested Giovanni and two children, almost lost their chance to capture a third Ezio, who has given and collect letters for her father.
Belatedly realized the betrayal of Uberto Alberti, whose father is considered a friend, Ezio appears in the execution of his family, watched in horror his father and brothers hanged, he escaped the same fate. No matter the Auditore remaining, the Templars continued in their mission to take control of the cities of northern Italy. In 1478, the House Templar affiliated Pazzi made to encourage them to control. In what would become known as the Pazzi conspiracy, which struck the Medici family during Mass, killing Giuliano de 'Medici and Lorenzo wounded, who was saved by Ezio Auditore appropriate intervention, children who have been allowed to escape. Lorenzo survival and doom for the pursuit of Ezio Pazzi family, who let their fate with Rodrigo Borgia. Vieri, Francesco and Jacopo de 'Pazzi all killed by assassins, while one of the Templars acknowledged their defeat in Florence, instead turned their attention to the city of Venice.
Utilizing Home Barbarigo, Venice Templar control briefly in 1486, before they once again overthrown by the Assassin. impaired control of the city have been beneficial to the Templars because the killer had distracted attention from the preparations made for the retrieval of the Piece of Eden from Cyprus. Two years later, in 1488, the expedition Templar returned to Venice with Apple in hand. Bring to a Borgia, a disguised move Ezio Templar Grand Master and, with the help of fellow assassins, forcing the Templars out of town once again. With Apple in the hands of assassins, Orsi brothers approached Brotherhood - Ludovico and Checco - to obtain detailed maps of the location of the Codex page Templar wife Girolamo Riario - Caterina Sforza. Attacking Forlì, Orsi brothers demanded maps, and Apple in exchange for the lives of children Sforza's. Brothers and sisters who admonish, and attacked Rocca in Ravaldino. Together with the city guard, killer Ezio Auditore and Niccolò Machiavelli withstand the attack, although both managed to claim the moment Apple.
Despite the loss of Apple, Rodrigo Borgia ultimately affected, and in 1492 became Pope Alexander VI to gain access to the papal staff, other Pieces of Eden, and in turn powers a church service. Borgia in 1499 once again confronted by the killer Ezio, this time in the Sistine Chapel itself. The defeat of the Templars, however, not permanent, as Rodrigo's son, Cesare Borgia, surrounded Monteriggioni to get back to the Apple of Eden and tried to kill Ezio. Four years later Templar Ezio goes to the heart itself, namely Rome, to strike back at the Templars and take the Apple.
Modern
In the 19th century, the Templars get a large amount of power and influence within the Russian Empire, with a number of the Tsars, including his son Alexander II and Alexander III, the Templars themselves. In possession of the Tsars'; Staff Eden, the autocratic rulers of the great power of their citizens. But in 1908, their control in the Russian Empire is greatly reduced by the destruction of Staff in Tunguska, in part thanks to the combined efforts of Nikola Tesla [1] and Assassin Nikolai Orlov.
Infiltration and build a business entity countless, by 20th Century Templar has positioned itself in a world defined some positions, controlling the entire nation and improve the technological level of the planet significantly. The Templars are also working to resist the progress of the world yet; Adolf Hitler using a Piece of Eden to rise to power in Germany, and then start the conflict around the world. He is "struggling" by his contemporaries Templar Winston Churchill, Joseph Stalin, and Franklin D. Roosevelt, who impersonate the nations of the Allies finally won the conflict, even though the war has been planned all along, and orchestrating the peace that will follow.
At the beginning of the 21st century, the Templars fronted Abstergo Industries has grown into a global entity, much larger and more powerful than most companies that have come before. For the most part is not being treated as suspicious, although there are those in the general population who viewed the company with suspicion, believing it to be "too big" companies. Among the nations that economic and political affairs that interfere with the Templars, including Chile, Argentina, and Iran. .
During this time, the Templars have access to a number of Pieces of Eden, however, Assassins action, coupled with the DIA satellite accident forced the Templars to the stepped-up Animus project, in hopes of finding another piece capable of controlling the human mind. In September 2012, sixteen test subjects have been "retired" before the company managed to seventeen - Desmond Miles, a descendant of Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad second, and Ezio Auditore da Firenze.
Arrested, for seven days he was forced to lighten his ancestor Altair's memories in order to achieve a specific memory Templar seek. The memory is listed as his ancestors discovered a holographic map containing the locations of all the Pieces of Eden spread around the world. With the information they have long sought in hand, the Templars set about gathering the remaining Pieces to ensure "absolute peace", although they soon find themselves in a race against the Order Assassin for the first Pieces. They plan to send a satellite with a Piece mounted on it into orbit, with the scheduled launch on December 21, 2012.
Family Pazzy
Pazzi family were Tuscan nobles who had banks in Florence in the 15th century. They are most famous for the "Pazzi Conspiracy." They are also members of the Knights Templars in Assassin's Creed II.
Pazzi family was one of the most powerful family in 15th-century Florence. However, they do not have a chance to power in the city for the Medici family still holds it. Rodrigo Borgia, Grand Master of the Templars, suggested that they overthrew the Medici with the murder of his head: Lorenzo de 'Medici.
The beginning of Conspriracy
In 1476, Giovanni Auditore, a close friend of Lorenzo and members of the order Assassin, find Pazzi family involvement in the conspiracy against the Medici. He managed to put Francesco de Pazzi 'in prison. However, the plot has reached the government members of the Medici themselves. Uberto Alberti, who gonfaloniere justice, freed Francesco, and sentenced to death along with his son Giovanni Federico and Petruccio for treason, remove Auditore family of Florence.
With Giovanni dead, there's no stopping Pazzi, until Ezio, the surviving son Giovanni, decided to avenge the murder of his family. Joined with his uncle, Mario, Ezio infiltrate San Gimignano. There, he witnessed a meeting between the Pazzi family and Rodrigo Borgia.Ezio later killed Vieri de 'Pazzi, the youngest of the Pazzi conspiracy.
KegagalanThe Conspiracy's
When Jacopo arrives at the Palazzo with the support of many residents, it was too late: Francesco's body had been hanging from the ceiling. After their plot failed, Pazzi Florence fled to hide in the town of San Gimignano. Nonetheless, Ezio (again with the help of Mario's) hunt down and kill all the conspirators. Jacopo went to defend his case with the Borgia, *** was even seriously injured and was used as bait to trap Ezio. Ezio struggled out of the trap and ended the life of Jacopo, and the Pazzi family with it. With the ruling family is missing, San Gimignano (and perhaps what is left of the fraction) was taken over by the Medici.
With the government Medici, Lorenzo Pazzi family were stripped of everything and throw them into prison, even those who do not play a part in the conspiracy.
The house of Borgia
House of Borgia is a family / Spanish Italian noble who became prominent during the Renaissance. Notable family members include Rodrigo, Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia. The family is known today for their crimes like theft and murder. During the Renaissance, the Borgia family is the most prominent manifestation of the Templars and also the leader of the Order. In 1492 with the election of Rodrigo Borgia to the Pope, the family became the Papal state regulatory agencies. The city of Rome declined by corruption, theft murder, and oppression.
Ezio Auditore da Firenze became a prominent opposition to the Borgia at the beginning of the 16th century, and recruit citizens to serve as Assassins'. As Borja strength decreases and collapses, the city of Rome were to change, which has been renovated and benefits from the arts and culture finally arrived and found prosperity Renaissance. In 1503 with the murder of Rodrigo Borgia, owned by his son, Cesare Borgia family took an instant fall, with Cesare, captain general of the papal army, was arrested and exiled to Spain in 1504.The family lost all its effect on the death of Rodrigo after Julius II succeeded him as Pope.
Houses Of Barbarigo
House of Barbarigo is a Venetian of noble family who lived during the late 15th century.Several family members, including Emilio, Marco, and Silvio Barbarigo pledged allegiance to the Templars, as some have done their allies.
In early 1476 Barbarigo family has been affiliated with the Templars, with family members regularly attend meetings Templars in Rome, in one of them expressed worry over the Assassin Giovanni Auditore da Firenze.
The Barbarigo remains with the Templars after the execution of Giovanni Auditore and two children, and followed the failure of Pazzi family to overthrow Lorenzo de 'Medici of Florence, and took control of the city on behalf of the Knights Templar. Grand Master of Order - Rodrigo Borgia - Barbarigo family approached with an offer that seems too good to refuse.
Although Emilio Barbarigo death at the hands of Ezio Auditore da Firenze, the son of Giovanni, in 1485, Barbarigo family remained steadfast. In the same year, after the assassination of Doge Giovanni Mocenigo by Templar Carlo Grimaldi, assumed the title of Doge Marco Barbarigo, a point of contention between the Templars many colleagues.With Venice under Templar control, Barbarigo was able to utilize resources throughout the city in their mission to regain Apple.
Time was short but exhilarating; Marco killed during Carnevale, and replaced by his brother Agostino - friends of Assassins. Not long later, Ezio side with Venetian the Mercenary guild and attacked the military district of the city, which remained under the control of Silvio Dante and his servant Moro. As Bartolomeo d'Alviano condottiero which disrupted the soldiers Templars, Ezio managed to sneak into the Arsenale in Venice and remove and Silvio Dante; end the presence of the Templars between Barbarigo family.
The Templars, also known as the Knights Templar during the Middle Ages, is the association formed during the prehistoric giants. The Templars are trying to create a perfect world, though in ways that they use to do that also called into question (by force).Because of this, they are the mortal enemy of the Order of the Assassin, who believe that human beings always must have the ability to choose, to have free will, even if it means humanity defects. With the ideological contrast, both groups have been fighting for thousands of years for the control and the fate of humanity.
The order of military Templar was founded in 1129 to face the public a growing threat to the Holy Land by the Saracens, and to protect the city of Jerusalem. Over time, the Templars began to believe it is their power to unite the world in peace.
their belief system is changed upon the discovery of Pieces of Eden, they began to speculate that God is a myth and this led to the Order to be atheistic, even though they openly defend pretend to follow the Christian way so as not to lose the support of the Church.
Realizing that the strength of the Pieces of Eden was held during the human, the Templars began to look for artifacts. In 1191, Robert de Sable, the Grand Master of the Order, a personal search for the Apple myth of Eden, was buried in the catacombs beneath the Temple of Solomon. Theft of pieces of Eden by the Order of Assassins brings two great strengths become ongoing conflict with one another, ending with the death of Armand Bouchart in Limassol. Despite this setback, the Order maintains his belief in creating a peaceful world through manipulation of Pieces of Eden.
With their reason, without penalty or reward hereafter or end after death, there is no reason to require the notion of morality or ethics: the end always justify the means, no matter how heinous the means it. They think that the only life is important, rather than preparing for the next life thinking no. With so many people of low class is stored in accordance with the promise of life after death, and so many upper-class people are happy to ignore these ideals, the Templars vowed to make a better world, one of lasting peace, regardless of cost.
With the passage of time, interest in the Templars find Pieces of Eden into more power and domination of the artifacts being offered. their goals change as they seek to control and unify the entire world using the Pieces of Eden to create a "New World Order".
Prehistoric
The Templars was probably founded by Cain, a 'sign' is used as the top of the Templars'.The Templars quickly became a bitter enemy of the Assassins, who, as opposed to the Templars, fight to allow the people to defend free will.Roman era Roman eraEdit sectionEdit
During the Roman era, the Templars went under the alias "Populusque Senatus Romanus", ruler of the Roman Empire. However, they continue to be thwarted by the rules of the Assassin Order. An important example of this is a plot against Gaius Julius Caesar, who was appointed dictator for life. Forty Assassins, especially Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, had infiltrated the inner circle of Caesar as a senator. They actually planned to kill the Emperor, the plans were successfully implemented on 15 March 44 BC. In addition, on January 24, 41, the Assassin Leonius Caligula was stabbed with a dagger.
During the 1st century, the Templars discovered that one of the Pieces of Eden, a white cloth in the hands of Jesus Christ. Wanting Piece for their own purposes, the Templars had crucified Jesus to get it.
MedievalFormation as a knight Order
During the Middle Ages, Templars remove themselves from under the ground and established himself as a knight of the Order, the Knights Templar.
In 1129 the Council of Troyes, the Order was officially recognized by the church, and in 1139, Pope Innocent II gave them diplomatic immunity in all provinces and territories and exemption from taxes. This allows the fraction to grow in numbers, strength and wealth quickly, and when they become a larger force, their responsibilities increase accordingly: many members of the Order of the leading figures in the second crusade.
Third Crusade
This section deals specifically with the activities of the faction articles Knights Templar during the Third Crusade. If you are looking for information about a specific type of enemy in Assassin's Creed, see the article under the Crusaders.
Founded in Jerusalem in 1129, the Knights Templar of the world to find peace with himself. In 1191, they have come to realize that peace can only be maintained through the use of the Pieces of Eden, and making their quest to collect as much as they can. In the same year, after the theft of Apple's Eden by the killer A-Saif Malik and Altair Ibn-La'Ahad of Templar, Brotherhood held a brief period of sustained conflict with their enemies Assassin. During the year, ten Templar leaders of both the Crusaders and Saracens fell into the background of the bar killer Altair, which serves penance for violating the three principles for theft. Death include not only the Grand Master of the Order, as well *** Al Mualim, a leader in Syria and killer Order Templar not only Apple's willing to share power with nine siblings.
With their leadership effectively abolished by a single killer, Brotherhood retreated to the island of Cyprus under the command of a new Grand Master, Armand Bouchart. Pursued by the Altair, the Templars were abolished once again, even though property in Limassol Templar Archives spirited away before they could be found. Order of Death Armand was forced to consider its position carefully, and with this Order 1312 has been officially disbanded. In fact, the Order continues to evolve, adopting a much more confidential position in world affairs. As the Templars retreated to near anonymity in the eyes of the world, the Order of assassins also retreated into the shadows, as said in the Codex Altair made up.
Renaissance
At the end of the 15th century, the Brotherhood has come back strong position on the world stage, spreading far into the Church and the nobility of Italy. Under the command of Rodrigo Borgia, the Templars sought to unite northern Italy under their command, and return the Apple of Eden which they know to be buried in Cyprus. Targeting Lorenzo de 'Medici, de facto ruler of Florence, the Templars found themselves confronted by Assassin Giovanni Auditore da Firenze, who while not out of loyalty to their Templar, quickly piecing together clues. After two near fatal encounter with Giovanni himself, Borgia arranged for the court and the execution of Giovanni and his three sons - Federico, Petruccio and Ezio - for the crime of High Treason against Florence, which city officials Uberto Alberti damage.The city guards arrested Giovanni and two children, almost lost their chance to capture a third Ezio, who has given and collect letters for her father.
Belatedly realized the betrayal of Uberto Alberti, whose father is considered a friend, Ezio appears in the execution of his family, watched in horror his father and brothers hanged, he escaped the same fate. No matter the Auditore remaining, the Templars continued in their mission to take control of the cities of northern Italy. In 1478, the House Templar affiliated Pazzi made to encourage them to control. In what would become known as the Pazzi conspiracy, which struck the Medici family during Mass, killing Giuliano de 'Medici and Lorenzo wounded, who was saved by Ezio Auditore appropriate intervention, children who have been allowed to escape. Lorenzo survival and doom for the pursuit of Ezio Pazzi family, who let their fate with Rodrigo Borgia. Vieri, Francesco and Jacopo de 'Pazzi all killed by assassins, while one of the Templars acknowledged their defeat in Florence, instead turned their attention to the city of Venice.
Utilizing Home Barbarigo, Venice Templar control briefly in 1486, before they once again overthrown by the Assassin. impaired control of the city have been beneficial to the Templars because the killer had distracted attention from the preparations made for the retrieval of the Piece of Eden from Cyprus. Two years later, in 1488, the expedition Templar returned to Venice with Apple in hand. Bring to a Borgia, a disguised move Ezio Templar Grand Master and, with the help of fellow assassins, forcing the Templars out of town once again. With Apple in the hands of assassins, Orsi brothers approached Brotherhood - Ludovico and Checco - to obtain detailed maps of the location of the Codex page Templar wife Girolamo Riario - Caterina Sforza. Attacking Forlì, Orsi brothers demanded maps, and Apple in exchange for the lives of children Sforza's. Brothers and sisters who admonish, and attacked Rocca in Ravaldino. Together with the city guard, killer Ezio Auditore and Niccolò Machiavelli withstand the attack, although both managed to claim the moment Apple.
Despite the loss of Apple, Rodrigo Borgia ultimately affected, and in 1492 became Pope Alexander VI to gain access to the papal staff, other Pieces of Eden, and in turn powers a church service. Borgia in 1499 once again confronted by the killer Ezio, this time in the Sistine Chapel itself. The defeat of the Templars, however, not permanent, as Rodrigo's son, Cesare Borgia, surrounded Monteriggioni to get back to the Apple of Eden and tried to kill Ezio. Four years later Templar Ezio goes to the heart itself, namely Rome, to strike back at the Templars and take the Apple.
Modern
In the 19th century, the Templars get a large amount of power and influence within the Russian Empire, with a number of the Tsars, including his son Alexander II and Alexander III, the Templars themselves. In possession of the Tsars'; Staff Eden, the autocratic rulers of the great power of their citizens. But in 1908, their control in the Russian Empire is greatly reduced by the destruction of Staff in Tunguska, in part thanks to the combined efforts of Nikola Tesla [1] and Assassin Nikolai Orlov.
Infiltration and build a business entity countless, by 20th Century Templar has positioned itself in a world defined some positions, controlling the entire nation and improve the technological level of the planet significantly. The Templars are also working to resist the progress of the world yet; Adolf Hitler using a Piece of Eden to rise to power in Germany, and then start the conflict around the world. He is "struggling" by his contemporaries Templar Winston Churchill, Joseph Stalin, and Franklin D. Roosevelt, who impersonate the nations of the Allies finally won the conflict, even though the war has been planned all along, and orchestrating the peace that will follow.
At the beginning of the 21st century, the Templars fronted Abstergo Industries has grown into a global entity, much larger and more powerful than most companies that have come before. For the most part is not being treated as suspicious, although there are those in the general population who viewed the company with suspicion, believing it to be "too big" companies. Among the nations that economic and political affairs that interfere with the Templars, including Chile, Argentina, and Iran. .
During this time, the Templars have access to a number of Pieces of Eden, however, Assassins action, coupled with the DIA satellite accident forced the Templars to the stepped-up Animus project, in hopes of finding another piece capable of controlling the human mind. In September 2012, sixteen test subjects have been "retired" before the company managed to seventeen - Desmond Miles, a descendant of Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad second, and Ezio Auditore da Firenze.
Arrested, for seven days he was forced to lighten his ancestor Altair's memories in order to achieve a specific memory Templar seek. The memory is listed as his ancestors discovered a holographic map containing the locations of all the Pieces of Eden spread around the world. With the information they have long sought in hand, the Templars set about gathering the remaining Pieces to ensure "absolute peace", although they soon find themselves in a race against the Order Assassin for the first Pieces. They plan to send a satellite with a Piece mounted on it into orbit, with the scheduled launch on December 21, 2012.
Family Pazzy
Pazzi family were Tuscan nobles who had banks in Florence in the 15th century. They are most famous for the "Pazzi Conspiracy." They are also members of the Knights Templars in Assassin's Creed II.
Pazzi family was one of the most powerful family in 15th-century Florence. However, they do not have a chance to power in the city for the Medici family still holds it. Rodrigo Borgia, Grand Master of the Templars, suggested that they overthrew the Medici with the murder of his head: Lorenzo de 'Medici.
The beginning of Conspriracy
In 1476, Giovanni Auditore, a close friend of Lorenzo and members of the order Assassin, find Pazzi family involvement in the conspiracy against the Medici. He managed to put Francesco de Pazzi 'in prison. However, the plot has reached the government members of the Medici themselves. Uberto Alberti, who gonfaloniere justice, freed Francesco, and sentenced to death along with his son Giovanni Federico and Petruccio for treason, remove Auditore family of Florence.
With Giovanni dead, there's no stopping Pazzi, until Ezio, the surviving son Giovanni, decided to avenge the murder of his family. Joined with his uncle, Mario, Ezio infiltrate San Gimignano. There, he witnessed a meeting between the Pazzi family and Rodrigo Borgia.Ezio later killed Vieri de 'Pazzi, the youngest of the Pazzi conspiracy.
KegagalanThe Conspiracy's
When Jacopo arrives at the Palazzo with the support of many residents, it was too late: Francesco's body had been hanging from the ceiling. After their plot failed, Pazzi Florence fled to hide in the town of San Gimignano. Nonetheless, Ezio (again with the help of Mario's) hunt down and kill all the conspirators. Jacopo went to defend his case with the Borgia, *** was even seriously injured and was used as bait to trap Ezio. Ezio struggled out of the trap and ended the life of Jacopo, and the Pazzi family with it. With the ruling family is missing, San Gimignano (and perhaps what is left of the fraction) was taken over by the Medici.
With the government Medici, Lorenzo Pazzi family were stripped of everything and throw them into prison, even those who do not play a part in the conspiracy.
The house of Borgia
House of Borgia is a family / Spanish Italian noble who became prominent during the Renaissance. Notable family members include Rodrigo, Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia. The family is known today for their crimes like theft and murder. During the Renaissance, the Borgia family is the most prominent manifestation of the Templars and also the leader of the Order. In 1492 with the election of Rodrigo Borgia to the Pope, the family became the Papal state regulatory agencies. The city of Rome declined by corruption, theft murder, and oppression.
Ezio Auditore da Firenze became a prominent opposition to the Borgia at the beginning of the 16th century, and recruit citizens to serve as Assassins'. As Borja strength decreases and collapses, the city of Rome were to change, which has been renovated and benefits from the arts and culture finally arrived and found prosperity Renaissance. In 1503 with the murder of Rodrigo Borgia, owned by his son, Cesare Borgia family took an instant fall, with Cesare, captain general of the papal army, was arrested and exiled to Spain in 1504.The family lost all its effect on the death of Rodrigo after Julius II succeeded him as Pope.
Houses Of Barbarigo
House of Barbarigo is a Venetian of noble family who lived during the late 15th century.Several family members, including Emilio, Marco, and Silvio Barbarigo pledged allegiance to the Templars, as some have done their allies.
In early 1476 Barbarigo family has been affiliated with the Templars, with family members regularly attend meetings Templars in Rome, in one of them expressed worry over the Assassin Giovanni Auditore da Firenze.
The Barbarigo remains with the Templars after the execution of Giovanni Auditore and two children, and followed the failure of Pazzi family to overthrow Lorenzo de 'Medici of Florence, and took control of the city on behalf of the Knights Templar. Grand Master of Order - Rodrigo Borgia - Barbarigo family approached with an offer that seems too good to refuse.
Although Emilio Barbarigo death at the hands of Ezio Auditore da Firenze, the son of Giovanni, in 1485, Barbarigo family remained steadfast. In the same year, after the assassination of Doge Giovanni Mocenigo by Templar Carlo Grimaldi, assumed the title of Doge Marco Barbarigo, a point of contention between the Templars many colleagues.With Venice under Templar control, Barbarigo was able to utilize resources throughout the city in their mission to regain Apple.
Time was short but exhilarating; Marco killed during Carnevale, and replaced by his brother Agostino - friends of Assassins. Not long later, Ezio side with Venetian the Mercenary guild and attacked the military district of the city, which remained under the control of Silvio Dante and his servant Moro. As Bartolomeo d'Alviano condottiero which disrupted the soldiers Templars, Ezio managed to sneak into the Arsenale in Venice and remove and Silvio Dante; end the presence of the Templars between Barbarigo family.
Jumat, 23 Desember 2011
6 events in the world's largest IT
1. Skipping Yahoo FacebookDid you know that Mark Zuckerberg almost never sell Facebook to Yahoo's ownership rights? In 2006, Yahoo saw the potential of Facebook is large enough to be against MySpace. They had offered to pay U.S. $ 1 billion to Mark. But when the acquisition occurred almost suddenly Yahoo shares decline to 22 percent. Reaction Yahoo?Negotiate lower prices bid for Mark to U.S. $ 800 million alone. Obviously he was rejected and finally decided to raise up alone. 
2. Real Networks Reject "iPod"iPod, the most popular multimedia file player right now, it has rejected the concept by Philips and Real Networks. Precisely in 2000, Tony Fadell offering tiny MP3 player concept, style, and provides content-delivery system that facilitates the charging of music, called Pod.
Only Apple would accept the proposal Fadell and manufactures devices that we know as the iPod and the content-delivery system called iTunes. Currently iTunes dominates the digital music market 80% paid in the world. News Real Networks? With RealPlayer, their income per year compared to only a handful of Apple's revenue from iTunes alone, sales have not added the iPod.
3. IBM mengatrol MicrosoftIn 1980, IBM was working on a project and find the first PC software companies that can provide a disc operating system (DOS). Initially they asked for help Gary Kildall of Digital Research, makers of the operating system CP / M.
However, negotiation is not running smoothly so that IBM eventually switched to the duo of Bill Gates and Paul Allen that has Microsoft's DOS program. The contract was established and hugely successful IBM, as well as raise the name of Microsoft. If only Kildall accepted IBM's willing, maybe the company who would meraksasa such as Microsoft present.
4. Xerox Alto "Stolen" AppleVendors Xerox developed the first computer that uses a window-based GUI. Computers that have previously only rely on text as operational. Given the name Alto, is already equipped with computer mouse, ethernet networking, and WSYIWYG text editor (what you see is what you get). But when it launched in 1973, the consumer PC market has not been established.
As a result, Xerox Alto to distribute only a few universities for free. Well, in 1979, Steve Jobs visited Xerox PARC, where the workmanship Alto. When viewing a computer is, he immediately inspired and then implement many of the major features of the Alto to the Lisa and Mac, the two PCs are the company developed. It turned out that the Mac is selling well, while Xerox is finally followed by marketing the Xerox Star (Alto-based technology) is late to market.
5. "Google" Before GoogleMid-1990s when the search is still balanced antarmesin war between Yahoo, Altavista, and Lycos, there is one which sticking to the surface. Open Text Web Index name. Google-like today, Open Text is known as response speed, accuracy, and comprehensive. In 1995, the architecture of Open Text bought Yahoo to apply even in the search engines.
But two years later, the owner of Open Text decides to switch sides to the sector for enterprise content management system. Whereas in 1998, Google has launched. If only Open Text (and Yahoo) continue to play in search engine technology, perhaps now is they who lead the market. Unfortunately, they did not realize the search engine industry in the current period.
6. Microsoft Save the AppleYear 1997 is the year of Apple's revival. In conditions of financial crisis due to its Mac competition from Power Computing and Radius, they threatened to stop production.Fortunately, help came unexpectedly: Microsoft. Unexpectedly they are willing to buy Apple shares amounting to U.S. $ 150 million, relatively simply to extend the breath.
Steve Jobs, as a negotiator in the talks with Microsoft, finally appointed as CEO of Apple.Then through the cold hand, Apple is now even able to compete with Microsoft - the gatekeeper of rescuers - in the IT business competition.
2. Real Networks Reject "iPod"iPod, the most popular multimedia file player right now, it has rejected the concept by Philips and Real Networks. Precisely in 2000, Tony Fadell offering tiny MP3 player concept, style, and provides content-delivery system that facilitates the charging of music, called Pod.
Only Apple would accept the proposal Fadell and manufactures devices that we know as the iPod and the content-delivery system called iTunes. Currently iTunes dominates the digital music market 80% paid in the world. News Real Networks? With RealPlayer, their income per year compared to only a handful of Apple's revenue from iTunes alone, sales have not added the iPod.
3. IBM mengatrol MicrosoftIn 1980, IBM was working on a project and find the first PC software companies that can provide a disc operating system (DOS). Initially they asked for help Gary Kildall of Digital Research, makers of the operating system CP / M.
However, negotiation is not running smoothly so that IBM eventually switched to the duo of Bill Gates and Paul Allen that has Microsoft's DOS program. The contract was established and hugely successful IBM, as well as raise the name of Microsoft. If only Kildall accepted IBM's willing, maybe the company who would meraksasa such as Microsoft present.
4. Xerox Alto "Stolen" AppleVendors Xerox developed the first computer that uses a window-based GUI. Computers that have previously only rely on text as operational. Given the name Alto, is already equipped with computer mouse, ethernet networking, and WSYIWYG text editor (what you see is what you get). But when it launched in 1973, the consumer PC market has not been established.
As a result, Xerox Alto to distribute only a few universities for free. Well, in 1979, Steve Jobs visited Xerox PARC, where the workmanship Alto. When viewing a computer is, he immediately inspired and then implement many of the major features of the Alto to the Lisa and Mac, the two PCs are the company developed. It turned out that the Mac is selling well, while Xerox is finally followed by marketing the Xerox Star (Alto-based technology) is late to market.
5. "Google" Before GoogleMid-1990s when the search is still balanced antarmesin war between Yahoo, Altavista, and Lycos, there is one which sticking to the surface. Open Text Web Index name. Google-like today, Open Text is known as response speed, accuracy, and comprehensive. In 1995, the architecture of Open Text bought Yahoo to apply even in the search engines.
But two years later, the owner of Open Text decides to switch sides to the sector for enterprise content management system. Whereas in 1998, Google has launched. If only Open Text (and Yahoo) continue to play in search engine technology, perhaps now is they who lead the market. Unfortunately, they did not realize the search engine industry in the current period.
6. Microsoft Save the AppleYear 1997 is the year of Apple's revival. In conditions of financial crisis due to its Mac competition from Power Computing and Radius, they threatened to stop production.Fortunately, help came unexpectedly: Microsoft. Unexpectedly they are willing to buy Apple shares amounting to U.S. $ 150 million, relatively simply to extend the breath.
Steve Jobs, as a negotiator in the talks with Microsoft, finally appointed as CEO of Apple.Then through the cold hand, Apple is now even able to compete with Microsoft - the gatekeeper of rescuers - in the IT business competition.
Kamis, 17 November 2011
History of World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web ("WWW" or simply the "Web") is a global information medium which users can read and write via computers connected to the Internet. The term is often mistakenly used as a synonym for the Internet itself, but the Web is a service that operates over the Internet, as e-mail does. The history of the Internet dates back significantly further than that of the World Wide Web.
The hypertext portion of the Web in particular has an intricate intellectual history; notable influences and precursors include Vannevar Bush'sMemex,[1] IBM's Generalized Markup Language,[2] and Ted Nelson's Project Xanadu.[1]
The concept of a home-based global information system goes at least as far back as "A Logic Named Joe", a 1946 short story by Murray Leinster, in which computer terminals, called "logics," were in every home. Although the computer system in the story is centralized, the story captures some of the feeling of the ubiquitous information explosion driven by the Web.
Contents[hide] |
[edit]1980–1991: Development of the World Wide Web
"In August, 1984 I wrote a proposal to the SW Group Leader, Les Robertson, for the establishment of a pilot project to install and evaluate TCP/IP protocols on some key non-Unix machines at CERN ... By 1990 CERN had become the largest Internet site in Europe and this fact... positively \in Europe and elsewhere... A key result of all these happenings was that by 1989 CERN's Internet facility was ready to become the medium within which Tim Berners-Lee would create the World Wide Web with a truly visionary idea..." [3]
In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee, an independent contractor at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), Switzerland, built ENQUIRE, as a personal database of people and software models, but also as a way to play with hypertext; each new page of information in ENQUIRE had to be linked to an existing page.[1]
He found an enthusiastic collaborator in Robert Cailliau, who rewrote the proposal (published on November 12, 1990) and sought resources within CERN. Berners-Lee and Cailliau pitched their ideas to the European Conference on Hypertext Technology in September 1990, but found no vendors who could appreciate their vision of marrying hypertext with the Internet.
By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 0.9, the HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the first Web browser (named WorldWideWeb, which was also a Web editor), the first HTTP server software (later known as CERN httpd), the first web server(http://info.cern.ch), and the first Web pages that described the project itself. The browser could accessUsenet newsgroups and FTP files as well. However, it could run only on the NeXT; Nicola Pellow therefore created a simple text browser that could run on almost any computer called the Line Mode Browser.[4] To encourage use within CERN, Bernd Pollermann put the CERN telephone directory on the web — previously users had to log onto the mainframe in order to look up phone numbers.[4]
Tim Berners-Lee's account of the exact locations at CERN where the Web was invented, is here.
On August 6, 1991,[5] Berners-Lee posted a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the alt.hypertext newsgroup. This date also marked the debut of the Web as a publicly available service on the Internet.
The WorldWideWeb (WWW) project aims to allow all links to be made to any information anywhere. [...] The WWW project was started to allow high energy physicists to share data, news, and documentation. We are very interested in spreading the web to other areas, and having gateway servers for other data. Collaborators welcome!" —from Tim Berners-Lee's first message
Paul Kunz from the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center visited CERN in September 1991, and was captivated by the Web. He brought the NeXT software back to SLAC, where librarian Louise Addis adapted it for the VM/CMS operating system on the IBM mainframe as a way to display SLAC’s catalog of online documents;[4] this was the first web server outside of Europe and the first in North America.[6]
An early CERN-related contribution to the Web was the parody band Les Horribles Cernettes, whose promotional image is believed to be among the Web's first five pictures.[7]
[edit]1992–1995: Growth of the WWW
In keeping with its birth at CERN, early adopters of the World Wide Web were primarily university-based scientific departments or physics laboratories such as Fermilab and SLAC.
Early websites intermingled links for both the HTTP web protocol and the then-popular Gopher protocol, which provided access to content through hypertext menus presented as a file system rather than through HTML files. Early Web users would navigate either by bookmarking popular directory pages, such as Berners-Lee's first site at http://info.cern.ch/, or by consulting updated lists such as the NCSA "What's New" page. Some sites were also indexed by WAIS, enabling users to submit full-text searches similar to the capability later provided by search engines.
There was still no graphical browser available for computers besides the NeXT. This gap was filled in April 1992 with the release of Erwise, an application developed at Helsinki University of Technology, and in May by ViolaWWW, created by Pei-Yuan Wei, which included advanced features such as embedded graphics, scripting, and animation.[4] ViolaWWW was originally an application forHyperCard. Both programs ran on the X Window System for Unix.[4]
Students at the University of Kansas adapted an existing text-only hypertext browser, Lynx, to access the web. Lynx was available on Unix and DOS, and some web designers, unimpressed with glossy graphical websites, held that a website not accessible through Lynx wasn’t worth visiting.
[edit]Early browsers
The turning point for the World Wide Web was the introduction[8] of the Mosaic web browser[9] in 1993, a graphical browser developed by a team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications(NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC), led by Marc Andreessen. Funding for Mosaic came from the High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a funding program initiated by then-Senator Al Gore's High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991 also known as the Gore Bill.[10]
The origins of Mosaic had begun in 1992. In November 1992, the NCSA at the University of Illinois (UIUC) established a website. In December 1992, Andreessen and Eric Bina, students attending UIUC and working at the NCSA, began work on Mosaic. They released an X Window browser in February 1993. It gained popularity due to its strong support of integrated multimedia, and the authors’ rapid response to user bug reports and recommendations for new features.
The first Microsoft Windows browser was Cello, written by Thomas R. Bruce for the Legal Information Institute at Cornell Law School to provide legal information, since more lawyers had more access to Windows than to Unix. Cello was released in June 1993.[4]
After graduation from UIUC, Andreessen and James H. Clark, former CEO of Silicon Graphics, met and formed Mosaic Communications Corporation to develop the Mosaic browser commercially. The company changed its name to Netscape in April 1994, and the browser was developed further as Netscape Navigator.
[edit]Web organization
In May 1994 the first International WWW Conference, organized by Robert Cailliau,[11][12] was held at CERN;[13] the conference has been held every year since. In April 1993 CERN had agreed that anyone could use the Web protocol and code royalty-free; this was in part a reaction to the perturbation caused by the University of Minnesota announcing that it would begin charging license fees for its implementation of the Gopher protocol.
In September 1994, Berners-Lee founded the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(DARPA) and the European Commission. It comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web. Berners-Lee made the Web available freely, with no patent and no royalties due. The W3C decided that their standards must be based on royalty-free technology, so they can be easily adopted by anyone.
By the end of 1994, while the total number of websites was still minute compared to present standards, quite a number of notable websites were already active, many of whom are the precursors or inspiring examples of today's most popular services.
[edit]1996–1998: Commercialization of the WWW
Main article: Web marketing
By 1996 it became obvious to most publicly traded companies that a public Web presence was no longer optional.[citation needed] Though at first people saw mainly[citation needed] the possibilities of free publishing and instant worldwide information, increasing familiarity with two-way communication over the "Web" led to the possibility of direct Web-based commerce (e-commerce) and instantaneous group communications worldwide. More dotcoms, displaying products on hypertext webpages, were added into the Web.
[edit]1999–2001: "Dot-com" boom and bust
Low interest rates in 1998–99 facilitated an increase in start-up companies. Although a number of these new entrepreneurs had realistic plans and administrative ability, most of them lacked these characteristics but were able to sell their ideas to investors because of the novelty of the dot-com concept.
Historically, the dot-com boom can be seen as similar to a number of other technology-inspired booms of the past including railroads in the 1840s, automobiles in the early 20th century, radio in the 1920s, television in the 1940s, transistor electronics in the 1950s, computer time-sharing in the 1960s, and home computers and biotechnology in the early 1980s.
In 2001 the bubble burst, and many dot-com startups went out of business after burning through their venture capital and failing to become profitable. Many others, however, did survive and thrive in the early 21st century. Many companies which began as online retailers blossomed and became highly profitable. More conventional retailers found online merchandising to be a profitable additional source of revenue. While some online entertainment and news outlets failed when their seed capital ran out, others persisted and eventually became economically self-sufficient. Traditional media outlets (newspaper publishers, broadcasters and cablecasters in particular) also found the Web to be a useful and profitable additional channel for content distribution, and an additional vehicle to generate advertising revenue. The sites that survived and eventually prospered after the bubble burst had two things in common; a sound business plan, and a niche in the marketplace that was, if not unique, particularly well-defined and well-served.
[edit]2002–present: The Web becomes ubiquitous
In the aftermath of the dot-com bubble, telecommunications companies had a great deal of overcapacity as many Internet business clients went bust. That, plus ongoing investment in local cell infrastructure kept connectivity charges low, and helping to make high-speed Internet connectivity more affordable. During this time, a handful of companies found success developing business models that helped make the World Wide Web a more compelling experience. These include airline booking sites, Google's search engine and its profitable approach to simplified, keyword-based advertising, as well as ebay's do-it-yourself auction site and Amazon.com's online department store.
This new era also begot social networking websites, such as MySpace and Facebook, which, though unpopular at first, very rapidly gained acceptance in becoming a major part of youth culture.
[edit]Web 2.0
Beginning in 2002, new ideas for sharing and exchanging content ad hoc, such as Weblogs and RSS, rapidly gained acceptance on the Web. This new model for information exchange, primarily featuring DIY user-edited and generated websites, was coined Web 2.0.
The Web 2.0 boom saw many new service-oriented startups catering to a new, democratized Web. Some believe it will be followed by the full realization of a Semantic Web.
Tim Berners-Lee originally expressed the vision of the Semantic Web as follows:[14]
I have a dream for the Web [in which computers] become capable of analyzing all the data on the Web – the content, links, and transactions between people and computers. A ‘Semantic Web’, which should make this possible, has yet to emerge, but when it does, the day-to-day mechanisms of trade, bureaucracy and our daily lives will be handled by machines talking to machines. The ‘intelligent agents’ people have touted for ages will finally materialize.— Tim Berners-Lee, 1999
Predictably, as the World Wide Web became easier to query, attained a higher degree of usability, and shed its esoteric reputation, it gained a sense of organization and unsophistication which opened the floodgates and ushered in a rapid period of popularization. New sites such as Wikipedia and its sister projects proved revolutionary in executing the User edited content concept. In 2005, 3 ex-PayPal employees formed a video viewing website called YouTube. Only a year later, YouTube was proven the most quickly popularized website in history, and even started a new concept of user-submitted content in major events, as in the CNN-YouTube Presidential Debates.
The popularity of YouTube and similar services, combined with the increasing availability and affordability of high-speed connections has made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. Many video-content hosting and creation sites provide an easy means for their videos to be embedded on third party websites without payment or permission.
This combination of more user-created or edited content, and easy means of sharing content, such as via RSS widgets and video embedding, has led to many sites with a typical "Web 2.0" feel. They have articles with embedded video, user-submitted comments below the article, and RSS boxes to the side, listing some of the latest articles from other sites.
Continued extension of the World Wide Web has focused on connecting devices to the Internet, coined Intelligent Device Management. As Internet connectivity becomes ubiquitous, manufacturers have started to leverage the expanded computing power of their devices to enhance their usability and capability. Through Internet connectivity, manufacturers are now able to interact with the devices they have sold and shipped to their customers, and customers are able to interact with the manufacturer (and other providers) to access new content.
Lending credence to the idea of the ubiquity of the web, Web 2.0 has found a place in the global English lexicon. On June 10, 2009 the Global Language Monitor declared it to be the one-millionth English word.[15]
[edit]See also
[edit]References
- Robert Cailliau, James Gillies, How the Web Was Born: The Story of the World Wide Web, ISBN 978-0-19-286207-5, Oxford University Press (Jan 1, 2000)
- Tim Berners-Lee with Mark Fischetti, Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web by Its Inventor, ISBN 978-0-06-251586-5, HarperSanFrancisco, 1999
- Tim Berners-Lee with Mark Fischetti, Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web by Its Inventor, ISBN 978-0-06-251587-X(pbk.), HarperSanFrancisco, 2000
- Andrew Herman, The World Wide Web and Contemporary Cultural Theory : Magic, Metaphor, Power, ISBN 978-0-415-92502-0, Routledge, 1st Edition (June 2000)
[edit]Footnotes
- ^ a b c Berners-Lee, Tim. "Frequently asked questions - Start of the web: Influences". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
- ^ Berners-Lee, Tim. "Frequently asked questions - Why the //, #, etc?". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
- ^ A Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN by Ben Segal. 1995
- ^ a b c d e f Berners-Lee, Tim (ca 1993/1994). "A Brief History of the Web". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
- ^ How the web went world wide, Mark Ward, Technology Correspondent, BBC News. Retrieved 24 January, 2011
- ^ Tim Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, HarperCollins, 2000, p.46
- ^ Heather McCabe (1999-02-09). "Grrl Geeks Rock Out". Wired magazine.
- ^ Mosaic Web Browser History – NCSA, Marc Andreessen, Eric Bina
- ^ NCSA Mosaic – September 10, 1993 Demo
- ^ Vice President Al Gore's ENIAC Anniversary Speech.
- ^ Robert Cailliau (21 July 2010). "A Short History of the Web". NetValley. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
- ^ Tim Berners-Lee. "Frequently asked questions - Robert Cailliau's role". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
- ^ "IW3C2 - Past and Future Conferences". International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. 2010-05-02. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
- ^ Berners-Lee, Tim; Fischetti, Mark (1999). Weaving the Web. HarperSanFrancisco. chapter 12. ISBN 9780062515872.
- ^ "'Millionth English Word' declared". NEWS.BBC.co.uk
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